The Roman Empire began as a city-state and expanded into a network of 2,000 cities from Britain to Syria. Roman cities administered fixed territories, with local elites collecting taxes and maintaining order in exchange for opportunities in the Pax Romana. This system flourished until the 3rd century when barbarian invasions and economic crises led to decline. Cities on frontiers were damaged or destroyed, and even those spared erected walls. Stability returned in the 4th century, but social changes hindered recovery. Wealthy magnates left for imperial administration, a trend that led to the impoverishment and reduced willingness of those who remained to govern. Cities important to the empire's governance, like Arles and Trier, thrived in late antiquity, but most Northwestern urban centers with shallow roots contracted, with Londinium being abandoned after the Roman evacuation of Britain. Cities near the Mediterranean were more likely to survive the Western Roman Empire's collapse, as they were closer to vital trade routes and peacefully integrated into barbarian kingdoms. However, these coastal cities later faced pirate attacks, prompting inhabitants to relocate to defensible hills. Cities in the Eastern Roman Empire remained healthy until the early 7th century when Avars, Slavs, Persians, and Arabs caused disruptions. Cities in Syria and Palestine, near the Umayyad Caliphate's center, survived and prospered after Arab conquests. Eventually, raids and invasions affected almost every region, exemplified by the Anatolian plateau's inhabitants abandoning cities for castles and caves due to Arab horsemen. Climate change, such as the cooling period in late antiquity, also impacted cities like Sagalassos in the Taurus Mountains. Environmental issues like salination in Egypt's Fayum Basin, siltation in Ephesus and Miletus's harbors, and earthquakes causing parts of Alexandria and Baiae to sink further contributed to urban decline. The spread of deadly falciparum malaria, exacerbated by deforestation, transformed areas like the Roman Campania into wastelands. Economic changes, particularly along former frontiers dependent on military spending and the disruption of trade routes after events like the Arab conquest, also led to the abandonment of cities, exemplified by the "Dead Cities" of northern Syria.
The Foundation and Flourishing of Roman Cities #
- Rome began as a city-state, expanding to include hundreds of others across the Mediterranean.
- Romans established new cities where none existed, creating a network of 2,000 from Britain to Syria.
- Each city administered a territory; leading citizens collected taxes and maintained order.
- In return, local elites gained political advancement and prosperity from the Pax Romana.
- Civic elites invested heavily in public infrastructure: forums, fountains, aqueducts, baths, gymnasiums, amphitheaters, and statue-lined avenues.
Decline in the 3rd and 4th Centuries #
- The golden age ended with invasions and economic crises in the 3rd century.
- Barbarian incursions damaged or destroyed hundreds of frontier cities.
- Cities often built defensive walls using dismantled monuments for protection.
- Stability returned in the 4th century, but long-term social changes hindered recovery.
- Difficulty in retaining local notables to manage cities, as wealthy magnates sought imperial administration positions.
- Remaining local leaders became impoverished, less capable, and less willing to govern.
- Cities vital to the empire's administration, like Arles and Trier, grew.
- Cities in Northwestern provinces with shallow urban traditions, like Londinium, contracted and were abandoned.
Geographical Factors Influencing Survival #
- Cities near the Mediterranean were more likely to survive the Western Roman Empire's collapse due to proximity to trade routes.
- These cities were often peacefully incorporated into barbarian kingdoms.
- Later, Mediterranean coastal cities faced pirate attacks (e.g., Saracen raid on St. Peter's Basilica in the 9th century).
- Inhabitants of coastal settlements moved to defensible hills to escape pirate threats.
- Cities in the Eastern Roman Empire remained healthy until the early 7th century, facing invasions from Avars, Slavs, Persians, and Arabs.
- Cities in Syria and Palestine flourished after Arab conquests due to their proximity to the Umayyad Caliphate.
Invasions and Climate Change #
- Regions were subjected to widespread raids and invasions (e.g., Anatolian plateau by Arab horsemen).
- Inhabitants abandoned cities for castles and caves due to constant threats.
- The Banu Hilal tribe in the 11th century destroyed many cities, reverting cultivated regions to pastoralism.
- Climate cooling in late antiquity withered cities like Sagalassos in the Taurus Mountains.
Environmental and Health Factors #
- Irrigated fields in Egypt's Fayum Basin were ruined by salination.
- Harbors of Ephesus and Miletus silted up, becoming unusable.
- Earthquakes caused parts of Alexandria and Baiae to sink into the sea.
- Falciparum malaria spread westward across the Mediterranean, exacerbated by deforestation.
- Deforestation created mosquito-ridden deltas by filling rivers with sediment.
- Malaria transformed previously healthy areas like the Roman Campania into wastelands.
Economic Shifts #
- The disappearance of the Roman Empire brought profound economic changes, especially along former frontiers reliant on military spending.
- Cities depended on dense networks of exchange, which were disrupted.
- Villages in northern Syria, which supplied olive oil to Antioch, were abandoned after Arab conquests altered trade routes, becoming "dead cities."
- Cities are fragile, relying on trade, transport, infrastructure, and a critical mass of people and resources.
- Subtler changes, beyond invasions and natural disasters, unraveled cities' reasons for being, leading to abandonment.